Activation of B cells and T cells requires the engagement of costimulatory signaling pathways in addition to Ag receptor signaling for efficient immune responses. None of the typhoid Vi polysaccharide (ViPS) subunit vaccines contains adjuvants that could activate costimulatory signaling pathways, yet these vaccines are very immunogenic. I hypothesized that residual TLR ligands present in the ViPS preparation used for making typhoid subunit vaccines account for the robust immune response generated by these vaccines. I show the presence of endotoxin, a potent agonist of TLR4, in ViPS preparations and ViPS vaccines. Furthermore, I found that ViPS obtained from various sources induces the production of proinflammat... More
Activation of B cells and T cells requires the engagement of costimulatory signaling pathways in addition to Ag receptor signaling for efficient immune responses. None of the typhoid Vi polysaccharide (ViPS) subunit vaccines contains adjuvants that could activate costimulatory signaling pathways, yet these vaccines are very immunogenic. I hypothesized that residual TLR ligands present in the ViPS preparation used for making typhoid subunit vaccines account for the robust immune response generated by these vaccines. I show the presence of endotoxin, a potent agonist of TLR4, in ViPS preparations and ViPS vaccines. Furthermore, I found that ViPS obtained from various sources induces the production of proinflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 from mouse peritoneal exudate cells. Unconjugated and tetanus toxoid-conjugated ViPS vaccines activate human and mouse TLR4. Mice deficient in TLR4 or the signaling adaptors MyD88 and Trif (Toll/IL-1R domain-containing adapter inducing IFN-β) are severely impaired in generating anti-ViPS responses to these vaccines. Elimination of the TLR4 agonist in ViPS preparation resulted in the loss of immunogenicity, and addition of lipid A, a known TLR4 agonist, restored the immunogenicity. These data highlight the importance of associated TLR ligands in the immunogenicity of ViPS subunit vaccines.
